Letter to the Editor Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Letter to the Editor - Essay Example The transmission of the disease occurs on sharing of the needles and syringes. Some drugs abused have effects of do not  care  aspect  coming from the drug abusers. They often  exchange  or share the needles and syringes containing the drugs. In the process of sharing, if one drug user is an HIV positive, the virus will end up spreading to many more users when they share the needles. Therefore, injecting drugs Users  constitute  a health threat to the local population. The main reason why IDUs should be focused is that most are young people.  They  spread  HIV to the rest of the people because they are more sexually active.  This means that the future  generation  will be at risk. HIV sequences  comparison  from newly reported cases amongst injecting drug users  has been used. Similarities of the genome got identified. This sums up that the virus must be circulating among drug users. Other data collected by  clinical  monitoring  are represented  for injecting drug users. HIV among the IDUs has remained a neglected issue. Policies have been many concerning drug control, but the  level  of a country to address HIV among IDUs is extremely  low. In most cases, prevention services  are limited. IDUs  get  no care or support from any source even when the funding of the HIV prevention measures got put into consideration. My main  objective  in this letter is to come up with an appealing solution to help curb this problem of HIV amongst IDUs (W.H.O., 2004). It is not necessary to stigmatise anyone as the cause of this but  rather  focus on the risk and take appropriate health  action  to  stop  the spread of the virus. Recent studies show that the IDUs remains excluded from the anti retroviral  therapy  and even basic care. To solve this problem, we need a multi combination of methods to at least be  effective. This  guide  is put  down for all institutions, individuals and

Timber Industry in Canada Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Timber Industry in Canada - Research Paper Example The US creates the world’s most number of wood panels, sawn wood, paper, paperboard and wood pulp, accounting for 25 to 30% of worldwide manufacture. As a result, the mutual production of the two countries accounts for 40% of the world’s manufacturing round wood and above one-third of all processed wood goods together with approximately half the world’s paper pulp. Canada has easily filled the gap by exporting 80 percent of its logged timber to United States destinations for utilization in the creation of US newspapers along with various other paper and wood products. This state of dealings has made Canada the world’s most important exporter of the main wood products. The area of North America should not be seen only as timber storehouses. In both America and Canada, forests give a broad rage of recreational profits, several of which have important financial rates in their own right. â€Å"As the old British mercantile system was dismembered in the 1840â €™s, Canada was thrown into a crisis. The square timber trade had folded up with the removal of British preferences† (Levitt 49). In the book ‘The Myth of the North American City: Continentalism Challenged’ by Michael Arthur Goldberg, John Mercer reveals that there are mostly four generally cited characteristics of the Canadian and US political structure that have been used to show the relationship among these systems. It is examined that both Canada and America are long recognized and constant democracies. He also says that the Canadian financial system has obtained its resource-based nature since earlier times. Demands for raw materials created in European urban markets guided the export of lumber fish and fur. In the early days, the Atlantic fishery was the foundation for financial... The Canadian economy is dependent on the service sector mainly, however, the timber industry, which belongs to the primary sector, happens to be one among the most popular industries that prove to be fruitful for the country. For the purpose of this research, it is not possible to obtain reliable information from primary source, therefore, in this research process the secondary method of collecting information has been adopted. Thus, secondary and qualitative research methods lead this research to vital conclusions. Along with this, the literature review is also taken into consideration. This report makes a conclusion that there exists a tough competition between Canada and the US regarding trade, so it is the responsibility of both the governments to see to it that the competition does not create any personal problems among the people of the two nations and that globalization becomes more developed and ultimately, both the countries benefit. Both countries are interdependent on each other and, thus, the rules and regulations with respect to mobility of labor, trade, free movement of goods and services should be in favor of both. The government of the two countries should work together in order to achieve a harmonious relationship between the two countries and develop the global trade as well as the mutual bond among them. In this way, it is possible that the government of Canada will be able to promote the production as well as the trade of timber.

Comunication in organization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Comunication in organization - Essay Example On the other hand, the model that the organizations adapt for communication is defines its effectiveness. Communication in an organization can contribute to its failure or its success (Downs & Adrian, 2004). This paper is a recommendation report that addresses the problem of communication in a business organization. It identifies the problems and recommends how an organization should deal with such problems related to communication. Communication Problems in an Organization Poor communication is a major problem in most organizations. It leads to failure of many projects, dissatisfaction of employees and eventually high turnover of employees hence causing huge losses to the organization. Poor communication also leads to lack of team work within the organization. This might result to low or dismal performance by employees. One major problem associated with poor communication is the lack of employees being informed about whatever is happening in the organization (Carroll, 2010). This ca n be facilitated by lack personal contact between workers and management. In most organization, there is a wide gap that exists between top managers and employees at the lowest level in the organization. As a result, it becomes difficult for information to flow effectively and efficiently from the top to bottom. Employees at the lower level stay in the dark, and they do not know what is happening. It is assumed that the modes of communication used can deliver important information to all employees. However, there are employees who do not use the modes of communication. For instance, where the top management is not in personal contact with the other employees, they might decide to use email as a mode of communication. Not all employees working in the organization have access to computers. Therefore, they do not use emails. It becomes difficult for such employees to be up to date about what is happening. It is imperative to note that the large gap in the organization has continued to increase especially with the advancement of technology. There is no personal contact since people are mostly using computers and cell phones for communication. Not all employees have access to these facilities. Managers who have excellent communication skills would prefer personal contact when communicating to their employees. The other problem associated with poor communication is the lack of clarity in the information received by employees from management (Carroll, 2010). It is very important for managers to communicate to their employees clearly. This is essential for successful communication to be effected. People are different and different employees interpret things in a different way. As a result, the managers need to clarify the issues they wish to communicate. Lack of clarity in information delivered by top managers might lead to different supervisors communicating messages that are conflicting to lower level employees. This leads to inconsistency of communication. There re sult is that there will be confusion among employees. This might affect the overall organizational performance. Poor communication also leads to luck of timely deliverance of information to employees. Employees do not get information when they need it (Carroll, 2010). This causes delays in decision making. It also delays projects especially if vital information is not received on good time. This is one reason that is likely to cause project failures. On the other

Business Plan and Business Planning Process Essay

Business Plan and Business Planning Process - Essay Example In this write-up, Stutley’s assertion that â€Å"The chief executive of the business or business unit should take overall responsibility for the plan, but the best business plans are developed by the whole†¦.for an enterprise-wide plan, all departments†¦should contribute to the planning process and the final documentation† (2007, 17) shall be linked to how an all-inclusive policy in the construction of a business plan can lead to successes for companies. Difference between business plan and business planning process Ward (2000) explains that â€Å"a business plan is a document that summarizes the operational and financial objectives of a business and contains the detailed plans and budgets showing how the objectives are to be realized.† Giving a closely related definition, Berry (2011) explains that â€Å"a business plan is any plan that works for a business to look ahead, allocates resources, focus on key points, and prepare for problems and opportunities.† On the other hand, Gleeson (2011) posits that â€Å"the business plan process is simply the steps you go through and actions you take when producing a business plan.† From these definitions, the differences that can be drawn between a business plan and the business planning process are that whereas a business plan is a document, the business planning process is an action. Again, whereas a business plan is an end product, the business planning process is a means to an end and is actually the means that results in a busine ss plan. To this effect, it can be said that an effect business planning process leads to a workable and effective business plan.

Mass Media and Violent Behavior among Adolescents Essay Example for Free

Mass Media and Violent Behavior among Adolescents Essay Violent scenes have become extremely commonplace among different forms of mass media that is available to the public. However, the rise of many heinous crimes committed by individuals who have been reported to patronize different mass media which contain excessive violence have made many behavioral psychologists and other researchers to see if there is a direct relationship between the extensive exposure of violence in different types of mass media and the development of violent behavior among adolescents. This paper aims to provide relevant information that while there is a direct relationship between the exposure of violent scenes in mass media and the development of violent behavior among adolescents, there are a number of other factors which need to be present in order for exposure to violent scenes in mass media to cause an adolescent to exemplify violent behavioral patterns. The paper would present a brief overview of the growth of popularity of violent scenes in different types of mass media. It would then provide factual incidences which have caused behavioral psychologists and other researchers to search for the relationship of increased exposure to violence in mass media and the development of violent behavior among adolescents as well as the different factors that an adolescent must already possess in order for such a direct relationship to occur. Violence as Entertainment Since the ancient times, violence has proven to be a popular form of entertainment in almost every culture in the world. These violent forms of entertainment range from viewing animals engaging in combat with each other, to various forms of entertainment where two individuals would need to physically compete and defeat the other in order to be claimed as the winner. Over the centuries, violence has remained a popular form of entertainment to the masses. It is presently used in computer video games, movies and television (Felson 1996). Crimes Linked to Violent Forms of Mass Media Recently, there has been a rise of a number of various heinous crimes committed by various individuals who have been noted to have become frequently exposed to various kinds of mass media which have been known to contain excessively graphic violent scenes. In 1993, two 11-year old boys where charged for the murder of a two-year old toddler named James Bulger by beating the young toddler to death along a railway track. This resulted to a number of various journalists to speculate that the violent nature of the crime and the violent behavior inert of these young boys were a result of them watching Child’s Play III, a horror film which was released during this time (Holland 2001). Perhaps the most popular case where behavioral psychologists and other researchers have theorized that violent scenes from different types of mass media leads to violent behavior, especially among adolescents, was on April 20, 1999. On this day, two teenagers who have been known to be fans of various violent video games and films which have been eventually discovered in the rooms of the two teenagers who had committed the crime before killing themselves with self-inflicted gunshots (Roy 2002). This was led to a number of research studies to be conducted in relation to the influence of violent scenes found in different forms of mass media and the development of violent behavior, particularly among the youth. The results of these research studies were then published in numerous peer-viewed journals and newspapers in order to make the public aware of the direct relationship between heavy exposures to violent scenes found in different forms of media have caused many adolescent to exemplify and exhibit violent forms of behavior towards each other (Gauntlett 2001). Contention to the Study Over the past few years, many research studies have been published which actually contend the belief that extreme exposure of violent scenes in different forms of mass media to have a direct influence to the development of violent behavior among adolescents. While these research studies do not disregard exposure to violent scenes in mass media can induce the development of violent behavior among adolescents, research studies have stipulated that there are other factors that contribute to this. One is the exposure of the adolescents to other acts of violence that have not been viewed through mass media. An adolescent, according to these research studies, can also develop violent acts of behavior by being exposed to various acts of violence that occur within the community the adolescent belongs. Among these are exposure to domestic violence and gang violence, which commonly occur within communities which have a low income socio-economic status (Jipguep Sanders-Phillips 2003). Another is the presence of psychological distress. Adolescents who have been diagnosed or exhibit symptoms of anxiety and depression brought about by acts of alienation and other forms of victimization brought about by their peers and other individuals would also induce violent behavior to be exhibited by these adolescents. This was the case of the two Columbine High School shooters who have been subjected to alienation and acts of bullying from their fellow classmates (Jipguep Sanders-Phillips 2003; Roy 2002). Conclusion Aggression and other forms of violent behavior may be triggered by violent scenes found in different types of mass media adolescents are able to access today. However, it has been determined that an adolescent must possess other characteristics and traits for violent scenes from mass-media to trigger violence among adolescents. Some of these include and adolescent’s exposure to acts of violence at home or within his or her community as well as oppressive acts towards these adolescents by their peers. It is for this reason that researchers and medical professionals are now able to explain why exposure to violent scenes in mass media does not affect all adolescents in terms of triggering violence. References Felson, R. B. (1996). Mass media effects on violent behavior. Annual review of sociology, 22, 103-28. Gauntlett, D. (2001). The worrying influence of ‘media effects’ studies. In M. Barker (Ed. ), Ill effects: the media/violence debate (pp. 47-62). New York: Routledge. Holland, P. (2001). Living for libido; or ‘child’s play IV’: the imagery of childhood and the call for censorship. In M. Barker (Ed. ), Ill effects: the media/violence debate (pp. 78- 86). New York: Routledge. Jipguep, M. C. Sanders-Phillips, K. (2003). The context of violence for children of color: violence in the community and in the media. The journal of Negro education, 72(4), 379-95. Roy, J. M. (2002). Love to hate: America’s obsession with hatred and violence. New York: Columbia University Press.

Organizations And Behavior Essay Example for Free

Organizations And Behavior Essay Introduction Management is an important activity in the performance of an organization.   Management involves integrated activities which together ensue that there is effective planning, control, and organization of recourses to lead the organization to achieve its goals and objectives. This means that managers need to have a wide range of information pertaining to different  Ã‚   departments in the organization. In this paper we are going to discus different management perspectives through accomplishment of different tasks.   The paper will look into organization structure can culture, motivation of employees, working with others in teams and groups, and organization leadership and management. Task 1 Comparing organization structure and culture of McDonalds and King George Pizza in Canada The fast food is one of the most competitive industries in the world.   The fast food industry has been recording higher rates of growth in North America including U.S and Canada than any other part of the world. MacDonald is a major player in the North American fast food industry while King George Pizza is one of small fast food establishment in British Columbia. Although the two companies operate in the same industry, there are a lot of similarity and differences in the organization structure and culture. This is based on the difference that comes as result of difference in their operation. McDonald organization structure is based on the size of its operation  Ã‚   which means that the structure has to adapt to the franchise nature of its operation (Haas and Wotruba 2003, p. 92). On the other hand, King Georges Pizza is a local restaurant operating just one branch in British Columbia. The culture between the two organization is also similar and at the same time with some differences. One of the key successes of MacDonald in the fast food industry has been its strong customer oriented culture. McDonald has adopted a market oriented culture which ensures that the company understands its consumers very well.   On the other hand, King George Pizza has also adopted a market oriented culture but its marketing activities have not been well targeted to the consumers like those of McDonalds. Due to its larger size of operation, MacDonald has adopted a bureaucratic structure that allows for standardization of its operations. The company has adopted tall structure in order to provide for standardization of operations and decision making process. On the hand, King George Pizza has adopted a pre-bureaucratic structure which lacks standardization with management strategies meant to meet the operational needs of the small establishment. The success of McDonalds has been cemented on it culture and organization structure. Since it was established, the company has taken consumer oriented hospitality culture that keeps customers coming for more.   McDonald is one of the companies which use a huge part of their revenues on customer service and advertisement in order to create good relationship with its customers. Apart from the customer oriented culture, the leadership of the company is democratic and ensures inclusion of employees in the decision making process.   The company takes its employees as the most important capital asset  Ã‚   for its growth.   Therefore McDonald employees are well motivated.   The structure of the organization has ensured standardized operations in all its establishments. Although there is management control from the head office, the franchises are given freedom in decision making process to make decisions which fits their operation (Haas and Wotruba 2003, p. 92). On the other hand, the King George Pizza has adopted an organization culture and structure that fits its operation. Like MacDonald, the company has a strong consumer oriented culture and although it does not have a customer service department, the employees have been well trained on customer service.   This has ensured the continued flow of customer to the small establishment in a competitive fast food market. At the same time, the company has adopted the right structure for its small operations. This structure ensures that there is strong control of the operation of the establishment by the management. Task 2 – Approaches to Management and Leadership Management approaches and how they can be implemented Management is one of the most important factions in the organization. Management involves playing key roles of planning and organizing the resources for the organization to lead it to achieve the set goals. Research has documented a correlation between the effectiveness of the management and the overall performance of the organization. There are different approaches to management depending on the kind of organization that one is dealing with (Haas and Wotruba 2003, p. 92).  Ã‚  Ã‚   One of the most common approaches to management is the project management.   This approach ahs been used for decades although it has been undergoing several changes in the recent past. Under this approach, the management takes the organization as a project that has specific goals and objectives to achieve. Therefore the guiding principle in the management is the requirements of the project and the fulfillment of the mission needs of the organization. This approach therefore assumes that the organization runs in cycles like a project and in each cycle, there are specific objectives that have to be leading the achievement of the overall goal.   However, this approach is  Ã‚   more focused on the technical mission or the technical aspects of the projection and various plans of action  Ã‚   and milestones to be achieved are the guiding pillars for the organization. Under this approach, the management takes into consideration activities like team building, budgeting, tracking the tasks as assigned to different individuals in the organization, reviewing individual performance, and many others. The success of the project or the organization is based on the way it meets its deliverables on the stipulated time and the set budget. This means that this approach is a bit rigid and set to details. To implement this approach, the management has to understand the goals and objectives of the organization and then formulate the necessary plan that will lead the organization to achieve the set goals and objectives. Another common management approach is the Balanced score card approach. This is a strategic planning and management system which is widely used in business, government, non-profit organization, and in other organizations with an aim of aligning the acclivities of the business with the vision and the overall growth strategy.   This approach is also aimed at improving the internal and external communications and toe monitor the progress in the performance of the organization in light of the set goals. This management approach is also focused on the drivers for the future growth and performance of the organization.   To achieve this, the management prioritizes the projects or initiatives which are likely to assist the organization to achieve these goals.   In order to implement this approach, the management has to view organization from four different perspectives including the learning and growth perspective, the business process perspective, the customer perspective, and financial perspective (Haas and Wotruba 2003, p. 92). Operational change As the U.S economy recede, most companies have been forced to undergo operations changes which are meant to reduce the cost of operation to align with the changing economic condition. The U.S Automotive industry which is on its knees due to threats of bankruptcy has seen a number of players in the industry under various operational changes in order to reduce the cost of operation. With the large burden of meeting the high labor cost, General Motors is one of the companies which as restructured its operation in a number of ways in order to cut its cost. Although the changes have emanated from the economical factors which may be beyond the control of the company, it has result to massive layoff and closing down of its plants in order to reduce the cost of operation. However, this has not gone well with UAW which is the trade union representing automotive workers in the US. The issues for confrontation has been the agreement that were made earlier between the company and the worker and even in the current financial crisis, the UAW has refused to let the deal go. Apparently the company could have retained some of the labor force and lowered the rate of pay per hour. At this time we can say the company is in a crisis. Managing change during a crisis is one of the most difficult tasks for any organization. At the time of crisis the organization needs to have a strong leadership style that does not compromise on the need to bring the organization back to its feet. Therefore authoritative leadership should be used to manage the current restructuring taking place in Ford General Motors. Authoritative leadership would minimize the number of time the management ha s to engage with the employees and the unions since the union has failed to recognize the current financial situation of the company. Task 3 – Motivational Theories In the 20th century management, the organizational assets were the most important capital for an organization. However, this has drastically changed in the 21st century and employees have become the most important capital for any organization. A well motivated workforce  Ã‚   can help an organization to have a competitive edge in the market which other organizations may find difficult to replicate.  Ã‚   One of the most important factors in human resource management is to ensure the overall satisfaction of the employees.  Ã‚   The main duty of human resource management is to ensure that employees are represented in the management and their affairs are taken care of. Motivation of the employees is one of the human resource practices that have been shown to increase employee satisfaction and therefore low rate of employee turnover and higher retention. Different organizations have taken different approaches to employee motivation (Weightman 2008, p. 45).   Research has documented that  Ã‚   despite the varied methods of employees motivation, monetary incentives remains the most effective.   Employee motivation can be described using behavioral and social approach. According to the behavioral approach, the management needs to have a clear understanding of the employees including the incentives and rewards that are used to motivate employees in the company.   In this case the managers have a duty of identifying the specific behavior that need to be reinforced in employees. These may include outstanding performance of the employee, punctuality, neatness, accuracy in completion of tasks and others. Any employee who shows improvements in these behaviors need to be rewarded to reinforce the development of those positive behaviors. On the other hand, social approaches include the integration of the cognitive and the behavioral aspects.   This theory view motivation as a factor produced by two forces including the expectation of the individual to succeed at work and the need to gain vicarious experience. Once the management recognizes the individual expectations, then they should provide the approach environment that will help the individual employee to achieve these. According the Maslow hierarchy of needs, we have different needs in our life that has to be fulfilled. The Maslow hierarchy therefore assumes that there are those basic needs that have to be met for the employees to the motivated.   The Maslow hierarchy of needs can be used to categorize how employees have different needs that have to be met for them to be motivated (Weightman 2008, p. 45).   .   The Maslow hierarchy theory starts with the basic needs up to social need. At the bottom there is physiological needs, safety, social, esteem, and self actualization a the top This means that it is important to recognize the specific needs of the employee that has to be met first according their hierarchy of needs. According to this theory, there are some basic needs that have to be met and in our life, we struggle to meet these needs. This means that our quest in life is to climb up the Maslow hierarchy to meet these needs.   Therefore if such needs are not satisfied, then individual motivation will arise from to satisfy them.   In line with fulfillment of these needs, a business therefore needs to offer different incentives to the workers in order to fulfill the different need as they progress up the ladder. Another theory of motivation is the two factor theory of Hertzberg.   Also known as hygiene theory,  Ã‚   it emphasizes more on the factors in the working environment which causes satisfaction and dissatisfaction.   The following table lists the top six factors which cause dissatisfaction and the top six factors causing satisfaction. Factors leading to dissatisfaction Leading to satisfaction Company policy Achievement Supervision Recognition Relationship with the boss Work itself Work conditions Responsibility Salary Advancement Relationship with peers Growth Like Maslow, Hertzberg reasoned that there are different individual needs which can be satisfied by money while there are others which cannot be satisfied by money. He argued that physiological needs or basic needs should be satisfied first while the other physiological needs should be satisfied later (Weightman 2008, p. 45).   . The implications of Hertzberg theory assert that the management should not only meet the hygiene factor to avoid the dissatisfaction of employees but they must also provide other factors which intrinsic to work in order to have satisfied employees. For example IBM, which is one of the most prosperous ICT companies in the world, has taken various strategies including flexible working schedules, pay per performance, and others in order to motivate their employees. The company takes an order from a client and allocates it to the worker who then works closely with the client to ensure that they meet all the technological challenges given by the client. Task 4 – Working with others, teamwork, groups and group dynamics Difference between teams and groups In many instances, we tend to use the work group and team interchangeably. However there are many differences between a tem and a group in the real application of the two.   In management we usually stress the importance of team building and not group building. This is because the strength of a team depends on the common purpose and the connectivity of the individual members. On the other hand, the strength of a group come the volume or the willingness to carry out the command given by the leader. In real application, it is very easy to form a group rather than a team. A group can be formed   by individuals of different   types and background but eventually it will be very difficult to achieve the commonality between the group members.   It is very difficult to build consensus in a group for a leader that it is in a team.   Unlike a group which is simple to form, a team is quite difficult to form.    The members of a team are not selected on the ground of commonality but on the ground of compatibility in different  Ã‚   complementary skills. For example a business team can be made up of an accountant, a salesman, secretary, and others.   Every member plays a different role but which are integrated to achieve a common goal. Unlike in a group, there is no room for conflicts in a team. The role of teams in a small and a big organization differs in some aspects although all the teams have the same role of achieving a set goal. However, teams in a small organization may be easier to form and evaluate and their process of work may be simpler due to the size of their operation. On the other hand, teams in a larger organization may take time to form since all members have to be consulted. Their process of work may be a bit difficult since they have a large operation to cover. Application of Tuckman and Jensen team development model Tuckman and Jensen present us with four stages which define group development.   Although the process can be subconscious, the four stages present the process which all groups go through in their formation. The first stage is the forming stage in which the individual behavior is defined by the desire to be accepted by other members of the team (McGrath and Tschan 2004, p. 61).   At this stage, serious issues, feelings, controversy, or conflict are usually avoided.   The individuals get more focused on adapting to their roles and gather information about others. The next stage is storming stage in which the group remains good to the other only when important issues are addressed.   There are minor confrontations which are dealt with or are ignored. These conflicts are related to work or relationship in the group.   The next stage is the norming stage in which the rules of engagement for the group member are established. At this stage, members understands the other well and the experience the efforts and experience of the other. However, individuals at this stage are resistance to change especially from outside for fear of group break up (McGrath and Tschan 2004, p. 61). The last stage is the performing stage which not many groups usually reach this stage.   This stage is characterized by interdependence and flexibility and every group member understand their role and trust each other. The group identity, loyalty and the performance are high as members become task oriented. How communication methods can affect team performance in a large multi national organization. Communication is one of the most important factors for optimum performance of an organization.   The communication process helps the organizations to pass important operation details from one department to the other. The communication structure in an organization is also very important since determines the flow of information from the management to the employees.   The  Ã‚   communication structure in an organization should ensure the smooth flow of information between the dyad in the work place. However, communication methods can affect team performance in multinational organizations. In most multinational organizations, the teams may be allocated to a certain function far away from the managements of the organization. This means that the team may be faced with the difficulty of enquiring important details regarding their duties from the management. At the same time, there is a high likelihood that the team will be made up of individuals using different languages. This means that the team will require an interpreter for it to function effectively (McGrath and Tschan 2004, p. 61). While forming teams for multinational organizations, language barrier should be one of the most important factors to consider. Bibligraphy: Haas, R.W. Wotruba, T.R 2003, Management: Concepts, Practice and Cases, Texas: Business Publications, Inc McGrath, J. E., Tschan, F 2004, Temporal matters in social psychology: Examining the role of time in the lives of groups and individuals. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association Weightman, J 2008, The Employee Motivation Audit, Cambridge Strategy Publications

What is the Impact of HIV/AIDS on Women?

What is the Impact of HIV/AIDS on Women? ABSTRACT This dissertation will outline the major issues surrounding HIV/AIDS infection as it relates to women, with specific reference to women in Zimbabwe and the United Kingdom (UK). It will explore the reasons why women are increasingly at greater risk of infection than males. Underpinned by a feminist analysis of womens oppression, it will include a discussion of how biological, social, sexual, economic and cultural inequalities contribute to womens vulnerability. It will also look at the impact of HIV/AIDS on women and how these factors can influence them to seek services. The differences in what is deemed â€Å"social work† in terms of both definition and practice as well as the differences in the health systems and the healthcare workers involved in delivering services in both countries will also be explored. INTRODUCTION AIDS stands for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, a disease that makes it difficult for the body to fight off infectious diseases. The human immunodeficiency virus known as HIV causes AIDS by infecting and damaging part of the bodys defences its lymphocytes against infection. Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell in the bodys immune system and are supposed to fight off invading germs. People may be infected (HIV positive) for many years before full AIDS develops, and they may be unaware of their status. HIV can only be passed on if infected blood, semen, vaginal fluids or breast milk gets inside another persons body. HIV and AIDS can be treated, but there are no vaccines or cures for them (WHO, 2003). HIV/AIDS PREVALENCE IN WOMEN IN ZIMBABWE AND THE UK Increasingly, â€Å"the face of HIV/AIDS is a womans face† (UNAIDS, 2004). AIDS is now the leading cause of death in Sub-Saharan Africa and the fourth-highest cause of death globally (UNAIDS, 2002). AIDS is a profound human tragedy and has been referred to as the â€Å"worlds most deadly undeclared war† (Richardson, 1987). Women and girls are especially vulnerable to HIV infection due to a host of biological, social, cultural and economic factors, including womens entrenched social and economic inequality within sexual relationships and marriage. HIV/AIDS continue their devastating spread, affecting the lives of 16,000 people each day, with women, babies and young people being increasingly affected. The number of people living with HIV/AIDS has now reached almost 40 million globally (UNAIDS and WHO, 2006), and of these an estimated two-thirds live in Sub-Saharan Africa, Zimbabwe included. Zimbabwe is experiencing one of the harshest AIDS epidemics in the world. The HIV prevalence rate in Zimbabwe is among the highest in the world, although recent evidence suggests that prevalence may be starting to decline. In Zimbabwe 1.8 million adults and children are living with HIV/AIDS, with 24.6% of adults infected: women represent 58% of those infected among the 20- to 49-year-old age range. (Consortium on AIDS and International Development, 2006) In a country with such a tense political and social climate, it has been difficult to respond to the crisis. President Robert Mugabe and his government have been widely criticised by the international community, and Zimbabwe has become increasingly isolated, both politically and economically. The country has had to confront a number of severe crises in the past few years, including an unprecedented rise in inflation (in January 2008 it reached 100,000%), a severe cholera epidemic, high rates of unemployment, political violence, and a near-total collapse of the health system (AIDS and HIV Information, 2009). In Britain, HIV prevalence is relatively low and currently stands at 0.2% of the population. Statistics show that at the end of 2008 there were an estimated 88,300 people living with HIV, of whom over a quarter (22,400, or 27%) were unaware of their infection. This compares to the 77,000 people estimated to be living with HIV in 2007, of whom 28% were estimated to be unaware of their HIV infection. Of all diagnoses to the end of 2008, 45% resulted from sex between men and 42% from heterosexual sex, with black Africans representing 35% of newly diagnosed infections (HPA, 2009). According to the Health Protection Agency (2009), there has also been a dramatic increase in the number of women diagnosed with HIV. In the years up to and including 1992, females accounted for 12% of HIV diagnoses, but in 2008 that was 37%. Therefore, as HIV/AIDS is a global pandemic, the eradication of this health issue represents one of humanitys greatest challenges one that requires co-operation and comprehensive collaboration between scientific disciplines, governments, social institutions, the media, social work and healthcare professionals, and the general public (IFSW, 2009). Social workers, by virtue of their training, their commitment to human rights, and the fact that they are uniquely placed within a wide variety of health and welfare settings, can play a very effective role in the global effort to address the HIV/AIDS epidemic (IFSW, 2009). 1. CHAPTER 1 1.1 OVERVIEW OF GENDER AND VULNERABILITY TO HIV/AIDS While women are battling for equal rights throughout the international community, the existing power imbalance between men and women renders women particularly vulnerable to contracting HIV. Womens subordinate position places them at a considerable disadvantage with respect to their fundamental human right to control their own sexuality, and to access prevention, care, treatment, and support services and information. This subordination of women is mainly caused by the socially-constructed relations between men and women or, in other words, the patriarchal structure which is oppressive to women. (Walby, 1990, cited in Richardson, 2000) defines patriarchy as the â€Å"system of social structures and practices that men use to dominate, oppress and exploit women†, thus giving them greater opportunities to access services compared to females. Although the World Health Organization (WHO) and many governments are implementing educational programmes to teach women about protecting th eir health, traditional and cultural practices continue to perpetuate discrimination against women, in turn forcing women into high-risk situations. Unless proactive human-rights policies are enacted to empower, educate, and protect women with regard to their sexual autonomy, HIV/AIDS will continue to spread at an alarming rate and will have a devastating impact on all aspects of society. Even though the root of womens vulnerability lies in the imbalance in power between men and women, biological and sexual practices have an important role to play and mean that HIV transmission is unfortunately more efficient in women than in men. 1.2 WOMENS BIOLOGICAL VULNERABILITY TO HIV/AIDS Women are more biologically vulnerable to HIV than men; research has shown that women are at greater risk than men of contracting HIV both from an individual act of intercourse and from each sexual partnership. This â€Å"biological sexism† applies not only to HIV but to most other sexually transmitted diseases (Hatcher, et al, 1989). A woman has a 50 per cent chance of acquiring gonorrhoea from an infected male partner while a man has a 25 per cent chance if he has sex with an infected woman (Doyal et al., 1994). This is because the vaginal tissue absorbs fluids more easily, including the sperm, which has a higher concentration of the HIV virus than female vaginal secretions and may remain in the vagina for hours following intercourse, thus increasing womens vulnerability to infection. Not only are women more vulnerable to STIs than men, but â€Å"untreated genital infections, especially genital ulcer disease, syphilis and genital herpes, all predispose to HIV infection† (Doyal, 1994). While STDs are not necessarily gender specific, it is likely that women with STDs will remain undiagnosed and untreated for longer, increasing their risk of infection (Finnegan, et al, 1993). This is largely because women tend to remain symptomless for longer than men (Doyal, 1994). Even though much is known about the transmission of HIV to women through unprotected sex with men, less is known about the manifestations, progression, treatment and care of HIV/AIDS in women. Due to the lack of research we can at best speculate on the reasons for this. One reason may be the failure of medical professionals to pick up on possible symptoms which are often present in women: â€Å"existing diagnostic guidelines pay little attention to symptoms such as thrush, herpes, menstrual problems and cervical cell abnormalities that seem to characterise the early stages of the disease process in many women. Indeed a significant number are diagnosed only during pregnancy or when their child is found to be HIV positive†. (Doyal, 1994, p13) Therefore, if researchers persist in ignoring the biological differences, then the realities of the risks of infection and the disease progression in women will remain unacknowledged. As a consequence of this, women will continue to be diagnosed later than men, which ultimately leads to an earlier death. (Gorst, 2001,) Further research into biological differences and the effects of HIV on womens bodies is urgently needed. 1.3 TRADITIONAL AND CULTURAL FACTORS Traditional and customary practices play a part in the vulnerability of women to HIV infection. Practices such as early marriage and the payment of lobola in marriages make women and girls more vulnerable to HIV infection. Marriages among black women in Zimbabwe include bride wealth â€Å"lobola† if the couple is to be socially approved. Bride wealth is increasingly becoming big business in Zimbabwe, with some parents charging as much as US$2,500 plus five or more cattle for an educated girl. (IRIN NEWS, 2009) The insistence on bride wealth as the basis of validating a marriage makes female sexuality a commodity and reduces women to sexual objects, with limited rights and privileges compared to their husbands, who pay in order to marry them, thus leaving them without a say in their relationship. Patriarchal attitudes are also found in Christianity and these have strengthened the traditional customs that men use to control womens sexuality. (Human Rights Monitor, 2001) For example, Eves alleged creation from Adams rib has made women occupy a subordinate position in the Church as well as in the family. Women are therefore viewed merely as second-class citizens who were created as an afterthought. This is to say that if God had seen it fit for Adam to stay alone, then Eve would never have been created and hence women would not exist in this world. Such patriarchal attitudes have seen women being forced to be submissive to males. To make matters worse, once Eve was created she wreaked havoc by giving in to the Devils temptation and pulling Adam into sin. This portrayal of women as the weaker sex has made men treat women as people who have to be kept under constant supervision. St Pauls letter to the Colossians is one example of the letters which Zimbabwean men quote as a justifi cation of their control over women. The woman is expected â€Å"to submit to her husband† (Colossians 3:18) whilst the husband has to love his wife (Colossians 3:19). Therefore, because of these beliefs, women will remain passive and powerless in relation to sexual health, making them more vulnerable to HIV/AIDS. 1.4 CONFLICT AND CIVIL UNREST Migration or displacement as a result of civil strife, natural disasters, drought, famine and political oppression has a greater impact on womens vulnerability to HIV infection compared to men. About 75 per cent of all refugees and displaced people are women and children. The political and economic crisis in many African and Asian countries has caused many women to come to the UK in search of safer lives and employment (Freedman, 2003). The World Health Organization (WHO, 2003) states that female immigrant workers are more vulnerable to sexual barter as they try to negotiate for necessary documentation, employment and housing, which further increases their risk of HIV/AIDS infection. In addition, because of the lack of legal documentation these women will experience limited options, receive low status, receive low pay and are often isolated in their work, including marriage, domestic, factory and sex work. These situations place women in vulnerable and powerless positions, with little ability to refuse or negotiate safe sex, thereby increasing their risk to HIV/AIDS. Despite the risks associated with the migration process it is important to recognise the right to ‘freedom of movement and travel irrespective of HIV status (ICW 12 Statement and the Barcelona Bill of Rights, 2002). This was a focal point during the Barcelona HIV/AIDS conference in 2002, because the Spanish authorities denied visas to numerous people from the South many of whom were open about their HIV status. Some countries do have discriminatory policies regarding travel of people living with HIV/AIDS (PLHA) and others are instituting stricter controls. For example, Canada has recently introduced the need for an HIV test for people emigrating to Canada and Australia. Whilst they say it will not affect the final decision it is not clear why they need the information (Tallis, 2002). 1.5 POVERTY AND INEQUALITY Women and men experience poverty differently because of gender inequality: The causes and outcomes of poverty are heavily engendered and yet traditional conceptualisations consistently fail to delineate povertys gender dimensions resulting in policies and programmes which fail to improve the lives of poor women and their families (Beneria and Bisnath, 1998). Despite worldwide attention to existing inequalities and the way these violate a socially-just society, there is no society in the world in which women are treated as equals with men (Doyal, 2001). Major inequalities between men and women still exist in many places from opportunities in education and employment to choices in relationships. Gender and social inequalities make women more vulnerable to HIV infection, especially in societies which afford women a lower status than men. Worldwide, women and girls are disproportionately impacted by poverty, representing 70 per cent of the 1.2 billion people who live in poverty worldwide (Amnesty International, 2005), a phenomenon commonly referred to as the â€Å"feminisation of poverty†. Worldwide, women receive an average of 30-40 per cent less pay than men for the same work (Card et al, 2007). This economic inequality may influence womens ability to control the timing and safety of sexual intercourse. Specifically, economic dependence on men, especially those who are not educated and do not have good jobs, forces women to remain silent about HIV risk issues and to stay with partners who refuse to engage in safe-sex practices. Poverty also leads to greater HIV risk among women by leading them to barter sex for economic gain or survival (Weiss et al, 1996). Commercial sex work is the most well-known way for women to exchange sex for money, food, shelter or other necessities. Most of this sex will be unsafe as women will be at risk of losing economic support from men by insisting on safer sex. Where substance abuse is a factor, the means for obtaining clean needles may be traded for other essentials. Trading or sharing needles is a way to reduce drug-addiction costs. Risk behaviours and disease potential are predictable under such compromised circumstances (Albertyn, 2000, cited in Card, 2007). Educational inequality also contributes to a womans HIV risk directly, by making information on HIV/AIDS less accessible to her, and indirectly, by increasing her economic dependence on a male partner. In particular, studies show that more-educated women are more likely to know how to prevent HIV transmission, delay sexual activity, use healthcare services, and take other steps to prevent the spread of HIV (UNIFEM, 2004). Because many cultures value ignorance about sex as a feature of femininity, many young women are prevented by husbands, fathers, or other family members from obtaining information about HIV/AIDS. Others decline to seek such information out of fear for their reputations. Lack of education about the causes, prevention, and treatment of HIV/AIDS will increase these womens vulnerability to infection. Legal systems and cultural norms in many countries reinforce gender inequality by giving men control over productive resources such as land, through marriage laws that subordinate wives to their husbands and inheritance customs that make males the principal beneficiaries of family property (Baylies, 2000). For example, Zimbabwe has a dual legal system, recognising both common and customary law in marriage. This creates inequalities for many women upon divorce or their husbands death. Women in customary marriages, especially those who are not educated and who live in rural areas, make up approximately 80% of marriages in Zimbabwe, and are not entitled to the same rights as those married under common law; this means that they are often barred from inheriting property and land, or getting custody of their children, thus making them more vulnerable to male dominance and increasing their risk of getting infected with STIs (Womankind, 2002). 1.6 CONCLUSION Power inequalities at social, economic, biological, political and cultural levels mean that women continue to be increasingly more at risk from HIV infection. It is therefore critical that social workers and other healthcare professionals make sure that HIV/AIDS prevention and care programmes address the most immediate perceived barriers to accessing HIV/AIDS prevention and care services. Measures could include vocational training, employment, micro-finance programmes, legal support, safe housing and childcare services. Such measures would empower these women to have options and to take voluntary and informed decisions regarding the adoption of safer practices to prevent the transmission of HIV/AIDS (UNODC, 2006). There is also the need for a female-controlled form of protection which women can use to protect themselves, for example microbicides, which women can use without the consent or even the knowledge of their partner, thus enabling them to protect themselves if they are forced to engage in unprotected sex. 2. CHAPTER 2 2.1 HIGH-RISK GROUPS OF WOMEN Although there is a vast literature on HIV/AIDS, relatively little has been written about how HIV/AIDS affects women, and what constitutes a high-risk group. In part, this reflects the way AIDS was initially perceived in the West as a â€Å"mens disease†, so much so that until a few years ago a common response to the topic of women and AIDS was â€Å"Do women get AIDS?†, the assumption being that women were at little or no risk (Doyal, et al, 1994). This has never been true of Africa, where the appallingly pervasive epidemic has always been a heterosexual disease and where 55 per cent of those who have been infected were women. In recent years it has become increasingly clear that women can both become infected with HIV and transmit the virus. A study conducted by AWARE (Association for Womens AIDS Research and Education) in America found that women who inject and share needles, have sexual contact with or are artificially inseminated by a man, lesbians, sex workers and those from an ethnic minority, especially black women, were at increased risk of HIV infection (Richardson, 1987). The study also found that most people in these groups are underrepresented in prevention or treatment interventions, and often suffer social stigma, isolation, poverty and marginalisation, which place them at higher risk. Therefore, in this chapter I am going to discuss how some of these groups are vulnerable to infection, and what can be done to prevent and treat infection in these vulnerable groups without inadvertently increasing their stigmatisation. 2.2 PROSTITUTES There is a substantial body of research on the correlation between HIV/AIDS infection and female prostitution. Studies worldwide have revealed cause-and-effect relationships between AIDS and prostitution in a number of areas, including the use of alcohol and/or psychoactive drugs, and have revealed variance in the rate and circumstance of infection from one country to another (OLeary et al, 1996). For example, researchers have found the high rate of AIDS in Africa to be largely a reflection of exposure through sexual activity only, while in the US and Europe, transmission of the AIDS virus is more likely to come from prostitutes or customers who are also IV drug users. Many writers have pointed out that real social concern about HIV infection did not materialise until its potential â€Å"spread to heterosexuals† was recognised. What is less often pointed out is that concern for the â€Å"spread to heterosexuals† has mostly been manifest in concern for the spread to heterosexual men, not heterosexual women (Flowers, 1998). The expressed fear is that HIV will spread from women to men, allegedly through prostitution. In the press and the international scientific literature on AIDS, often the light cast upon Women in Prostitution (WIP) has been a harsh one. WIP have been identified as a â€Å"risk group†, a â€Å"reservoir of infection†, and a â€Å"bridge† for the HIV epidemic. Such technical, epidemiological language has depicted WIP as vectors of HIV infection (Scharf and Toole, 1992). Rather than presenting WIP as links in broader networks of heterosexual HIV transmission, women categorised as prostitutes have bee n described as â€Å"infecting† their unborn infants, their clients and indirectly their clients other female sexual partners, as though HIV originated among WIP (Scharf and Toole, 1992). Like posters from WWI and WWII which aimed to warn armed servicemen in Europe of the danger of contracting gonorrhoea and syphilis (Brandt, 1985, cited in Flowers et al, 1998), some AIDS-prevention posters have caricatured WIP as evil sirens ready to entice men to their deaths (New African, 1987, cited in Larson, 1988). Interestingly, there is evidence that some HIV-positive men may be inclined to claim that their infection came from a female prostitute, in order to cover up its real origins: sex with a man, or IV drug use. 2.3 PROSTITUTION IN ZIMBABWE There are many reasons why women engage in prostitution in Zimbabwe. Studies show that poverty and deviance are the main causes. Other studies have shown that many women engage themselves in prostitution by their own choice and see it as a career path whilst others might be forced into it (Chudakov, 1995). In Zimbabwe prostitution is illegal, and many women and young girls, especially orphans who engage in prostitution, are driven to it by poverty and economic dislocation, which is being caused by the current economic and political crisis the country is experiencing. According to the United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF), the hunger and disease-ridden conditions in much of Zimbabwe have forced many children into prostitution in order to feed themselves (UNICEF, 2008). Save the Children, a non-governmental organisation working to create positive changes for disadvantaged children in the country, estimate that girls as young as 12 are now selling their bodies for even the most meagr e of meals, such as biscuits and chips. They also state that the issue is further complicated by the growing presence of child traffickers in the region, looking for young girls to abduct and take to South Africa for the use of potential clients at the 2010 World Cup (Mediaglobal, 2009). Combating child prostitution and trafficking is complicated, but prioritising the alleviation of poverty with particular emphasis on fighting poverty from a childs perspective; prioritising education for all, with emphasis on improving access for girls; and provision of information to victims and survivors of child prostitution and/or trafficking, including information about available counselling and legislative services would be helpful (WHO, 2003). 2.4 PROSTITUTION IN THE UK Prostitution in the UK is different from that in Zimbabwe. The laws around prostitution in England and Wales are far from straight-forward. The act of prostitution is not in itself illegal but a string of laws criminalises activities around it. Under the Sexual Offences Act 2003, it is an offence to cause or incite prostitution or control it for personal gain. The 1956 Sexual Offences Act bans running a brothel and its against the law to loiter or solicit sex on the street. Kerb-crawling is also banned, providing it can be shown that the individual was causing a persistent annoyance (BBC NEWS, 2008). Though actual s are scarce, it has been estimated that at least 2 million women are selling sexual favours in Britain. The bulk of these are brothel prostitutes working in parlours, saunas or private health clubs. According to The First Post published on 18/08/08, prostitution was viewed as â€Å"the new profession†. The article stated that prostitution in Britain is booming, and that thousands of young women have chosen prostitution for independence and financial security. The key factor which has led to a huge rise in this kind of prostitution is the influx of girls from Poland and other Eastern European countries which acceded to the EU in 2000. A strong relationship also exists between UK prostitutes and substance abuse, which drives many into the sex business. Intravenous-drug-using prostitutes are particularly prominent in Scottish cities such as Glasgow (OLeary et al, 1996). According to researchers, 70 per cent of the citys streetwalkers are IV drug addicts, injecting heroin, temazepam and tengesic. In Edinburgh, which has the highest rate of HIV-seropositive IV drug addicts of all cities in Britain, a significant number of those addicts testing HIV positive have been identified as prostitutes. Even though sex workers can transmit HIV/AIDS, blaming them encourages stigma and discrimination against all women. It allows the men who infect sex workers and their own wives to deny that they are infecting others. Wives too can infect their husbands, who can in turn infect sex workers. It is therefore important to note that sex workers and their clients are not serving as a â€Å"bridge† for HIV transmission into the rest of the population. 2.4 LESBIANS Can women transmit the disease to other women through sexual activity? The answer to this question is crucial for a community that knows that HIV is within it even though the question might be difficult to answer as there is â€Å"very little† information on this subject (Richardson, 1987). Lesbians were seen as least likely to be infected, as there was an understanding of HIV as a disease which existed in specific groups of people, for example gay males and intravenous-drug users. Because of these biased attitudes toward people, rather than risk behaviours, no data was systematically gathered. This understanding prevented the healthcare system from defining sexual risk behaviours: it stressed people, not sexual behaviours. It has therefore been noted that most lesbians have been in â€Å"risk situations† or engaged in what would be considered as â€Å"risky behaviour† at some stage. Some lesbians inject drugs and may share needles. Also, a significant number of lesbians have had sex with men before coming out, and many will have had unprotected vaginal or anal intercourse Some may still have sex with men for reproductive purposes (Gorna, 1996). Some may be prostitutes who, for economic reasons or through pressure from a pimp, may have had unprotected sex with clients (Richardson, 1989). According to records from a London sexual health clinic for lesbians, 35 per cent of the lesbians who attended had had sex with a man in the previous six months (Gorna, 1996). As Gorna puts it, this emphasises the fact that â€Å"activity is not always consistent with identity†. In other words, â€Å"we are put at risk by what we do, not by how we define ourselves or who we are† (Bury, 1994, p32). Although the risk of HIV infection from sex between women is very small, it is important for lesbians to look at what they do, how they do it and with whom they do it, just like everyone else, as, â€Å"Low risk isnt no risk† (Richardson, D, 2004). However, they may find it difficult to access services and, if they become ill, they may experience special problems, given that the healthcare system is designed for and administered by a predominantly heterosexual population. There may be a lack of recognition of their relationships, which could lead to isolation and depression. For example in Zimbabwe homosexuality is illegal and punishable by imprisonment of up to 10 years. The President of Zimbabwe, Robert Mugabe, views lesbians and gays as â€Å"sexual perverts† who are â€Å"lower than dogs and pigs† (BBC NEWS, 1998). In 1995 he ordered the Zimbabwe International Book Fair to ban an exhibit by the civil-rights group Gays and Lesbians in Zimbabwe (GALZ). He follo wed this ban with warnings that homosexuals should leave the country â€Å"voluntarily† or face â€Å"dire consequences†. Soon afterwards Mugabe urged the public to track down and arrest lesbians and gays. Since these incitements, homosexuals have been fire-bombed, arrested, interrogated and threatened with death (Tatchell, 2001). This makes it difficult for lesbians in Zimbabwe to access information and other services, thus increasing their vulnerability to HIV infection. 2.5 ELDERLY WOMEN The number of older people (older than 50 years) with HIV/AIDS is growing fast. Older adults are infected through the same high-risk behaviours as young adults, though they may be unaware that they are at risk of HIV/AIDS. However, when assessing the impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic upon the worlds population, older people are often overlooked. HIV-prevention measures rarely target the older generation, despite the fact that many older people are sexually active and therefore still at risk of being exposed to HIV. The older population is steadily growing larger with the maturing of the â€Å"baby-boomer† generation as well as the availability of antiretroviral drugs which extend peoples life expectancy. Social norms about divorce, sex, and dating are changing, and drugs such as Viagra are facilitating a more active sex life for older adults (NAHOF, 2007, cited in Lundy et al, 2009). Heterosexual women aged 50 and older are most in need of the HIV-prevention message. The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS, 2006) estimates that around 2.8 million adults aged 50 years and over are living with HIV, representing 7 per cent of all cases. In the UK, the Health Protection Agency reported that almost 4,000 HIV-infected people who were accessing care in 2006 were aged 55 years or over. Data on this subject from low-income countries like Zimbabwe is fairly patchy. This is because HIV/AIDS surveillance is commonly conducted in antenatal clinics, as many people have little other direct contact with medical services. Data from antenatal clinics does not provide information about people who are above child-bearing age, thus making it difficult for healthcare and service providers to make policies that will impact on the elderly who are infected. Firstly, it has been noted that elderly women can be exposed to HIV via non-consensual sexual contact or rape. Research has shown that some criminals appear to target older women for sexual crimes because they appear to be, and often are, vulnerable to attack (Muram et al, 1992). Elderly women in institutional settings such as nursing homes may also be at greater risk. Some estimates suggest that up to 15 per cent of elderly nursing-home residents have been victims of either sexual or physical abuse, thus increasing their vulnerability to HIV infection (Collins, 2002). Exposure to blood tainted with HIV may also occur when an older woman provides care to adult children who may be suffering from AIDS (Levine-Perkell, 1996). Allers (1990) revealed that more than one-third of all adults who contract A